Males and women....

Somewhat experimental post. Starting point is a discussion on SRSD - the topic "Phrases that annoy you as a Social Justice Person". The comments in question:

Poster 1:
"Homosexual" instead of gay/lesbian, especially when used as a noun. "Female" as a noun as well. Basically anytime overly clinical/detached/"scientific" language is used to describe marginalized groups.

Poster 2:
"Female" alone doesn't bother me so much as "females and men". Or even the rare "males and women", though that doesn't come up often at all.

Well, so let us find out how often those are used, compared with the "males and women" equivalent.

                        Google    Topsy All Time
"females and men"    2.280.000             4,096 
"men and females"   16.500.000             3,370

"males and women"   38.200.000               477
"women and males"    1.520.000               279

Apparently there are huge differences depending on the community. I did try searching reddit but did get too few results. Maybe not even the best way too search for those terms.

I hope he dies / I hope she dies - Topsy analysis

Now that was interesting. The blogger on the Men Matterz blog used Topsy (a site to analyze tweets) to see how common advocating violence towards men were. The results from the last 30 days:

“cut off his dick” – 646 instances
“chopped off his balls” – 102 instances
“chopped off his dick” – 60 instances
“chop off his dick” – 232 instances
“rip his dick off” – 31 instances
“going to kill him” – 374 instances
“I hope he gets raped” – 34 instances
“I want to stab him”- 66 instances

If retweets are taken into consideration, just on these phrases alone which only represent a fraction of the variations out there, the number exceeded well over 4,000 genuinely disturbing comments in just 30 days.

I have no clue how twitter works when it comes to retweets but found this pretty interesting. I asked myself, of course, but what about women, as compared to men. So I used Topsy as well as Google to find some results for phrases that include kill, die and rape. The Results:

                              Topsy (All Time)      Google
----------------------------------------------------------
"I hope he gets raped"         121                 385,000
"I hope she gets raped"         56                 184,000
Gender Ratio (F:M)            0.46                    0.47

"I want to rape him"           241                  99,300
"I want to rape her"            62                 139,000
Gender Ratio (F:M)            0.25                    1.39            

"I hope he dies"              1937               1,790,000
"I hope she dies"             1181                 603,000
Gender Ratio (F:M)            0.60                    0.33            

"I want to kill him"          3642               3,360,000
"I want to kill her"          1915               1,420,000
Gender Ratio (F:M)            0.52                    0.42

"I hope he gets killed"         54                 627,000
"I hope she gets killed"        45                 223,000
Gender Ratio (F:M)            0.83                    0.35

Pretty interesting results. Especially for the rape items where I did not suspect to be more hateful comments against men, on Twitter. The Google result for "I want to rape him/her" is the only item where the female version got more hits. I played around with "rape her / rape him" which is in favor of the female version, however most of the results listed seem to come from news reports so these findings are not surprising and I was looking for people advocating for violence.

Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes Toward Men

I really do love google scholar:

Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes Toward Women and Men - Alice H. Eagly - 1989

Attitude theory is used to provide a conceptual analysis of how attitudes toward men and women relate to gender stereotypes. Consistent with this analysis, attitudes toward the sexes related positively to the evaluative meaning of the corresponding gender stereo-types. In addition, attitudes and stereotypes about women were extremely favorable - in fact, more favorable than those about men. The findings also demonstrated that the Attitudes Toward Women Scale assesses attitudes toward equal rights for women not attitudes toward women, and therefore did not relate to the evaluative meaning of subjects' stereotypes about women.

And as a bonus:

The construction and validation of Attitudes Toward Men Scale - Iazzo, Anthony N. - 1983

Describes the construction and validation of the Attitudes Toward Men Scale (AMS). The initial 63 items were based on a review of the literature, which suggested 4 major content areas that define men: marriage and parenthood, sexuality, work, and physical and personality attributes. Factor analysis of responses of 104 18–63 yr old women indicated 4 factors that corresponded to these content areas. Good internal consistency and freedom from social desirability distortion were found. In criterion-related validation, the AMS scores of battered wives, rape victims, feminists, and lesbians clearly demonstrated more negative attitudes toward men than a control sample. In an exploratory study, the personality and psychopathology of the 1st 104 Ss were compared (via the 16PF and the Mini-Mult) and contrasted in relation to their attitudes toward men. Findings indicate that attitudes toward men depend largely on experience. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)

The Actor and the Observed, Man and Woman

Kudos to Typhonblue on that one who linked to this article and started an interesting discussion:

A recent study by Marisa Bortolussi, Peter Dixon, and Paul Sopčák (2010) was about the effects of gender on reading fiction in Canada and Germany, but the results are best explained in terms of actor-observer differences.

The influence of gender on reading is a perennial question because it’s invariably found that more women than men read literary fiction. In the most recent large US survey by the National Endowment for the Arts (2009), which had 18,000 respondents, it was found that 58% of women had read a play, poetry, short-story or novel during the previous year, as compared 42% of men.

Bortolussi et al. selected four passages, each of about 1000 words, from contemporary novels, two with male protagonists, and two with female protagonists. For each passage with a male protagonist, they wrote a version of the same passage with a female protagonist, and for each passage with a female protagonist, they wrote a version with a male protagonist. They prepared versions in English (for the Canadian readers) and in German (for the German readers). Previous research has tended to find that males tended to prefer male protagonists and females to prefer female protagonists. With their clever manipulation of assigning people to the same stories but with different-sexed protagonists, Bortolussi and her colleagues found both male and female readers—in Canada and Germany—preferred male protagonists. That is to say: both males and female readers agreed more strongly with an item that stated, "I feel I can understand and appreciate the main character and situation of he story," and one that stated, "I would like to continue reading to find out what happens next in the story," when the protagonist was male as compared with being female.

The researchers explain this effect in terms of the actor-observer bias. In general, say Bortolussi and her colleagues, men in Western societies tend to be seen as acting in response to circumstances ("he did what he had to") whereas women tend more often to be seen in terms of their personality ("she behaved emotionally"). Thus, for both men and women, our social stereotypes make it easier in stories to understand and to identify with a male protagonist, the kind of character who acts in response to the situation he is in, than with a female protagonist, the kind of character who acts because of her personality.

And some more about body image, beauty standards and the media...

Well have you ever heard studies telling you how bad women feel about their bodies? Are you surprised that it is not only women feeling that way?

College counseling centers and health services have reported increasing numbers of cases of college men with eating disorders and a sharp rise in the percentage of men who are dissatisfied with their bodies (Morgan, 2002). Evidence shows that more men are presenting to college counseling centers with low self-esteem, appearance concerns, and abnormal eating and exercising behaviors (Morgan, 2002); and research indicates that 95% of college men report dissatisfaction with some aspect of their bodies (Labre, 2002). Moreover, men increasingly are presenting to college counseling centers with manifestations of muscle dysmorphia: low self-esteem, shame, decreased social functioning, and anxiety regarding their appearance. This development, in association with the risk of creatine use and other adverse health behaviors, is creating a growing need for college counselors to better understand the issues facing college men with regard to their body dissatisfaction. - from here

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Body image is often measured by asking the subject to rate their current and ideal body shape using a series of depictions. The difference between these two values is the amount of body dissatisfaction. Monteath and McCabe found that 44%[3] of women express negative feelings about both individual body parts and their bodies as a whole. Psychology Today found that 56% of the women and about 40% of the men who responded to their survey in 1997 were dissatisfied with their overall appearance.[4]

The desire to lose weight is highly correlated with poor body image, and more women than men desire to lose weight. Kashubeck-West et al. reported that when considering only men and women who desire to lose weight, sex differences in body image disappear.[5]

Men's body image is a topic of increasing interest in both academic articles and in the popular press. Current research indicates many men wish to become more muscular than they currently perceive themselves to be, often desiring up to 26 pounds of additional muscle mass.[6]

The desire for additional muscle has been linked to many men's concepts about masculinity. A variety of research has indicated a relationship between men's endorsement of traditionally masculine ideas and characteristics, and his desire for additional muscle[7]. Some research has suggested this relationship between muscle and masculinity may begin early in life, as boys' action figures are often depicted as super-muscular, often beyond the actual limits of human physiology. [8] - from here

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Men are no more immune to the compelling forces of the media than women have been. Men and boys feel pressured to conform to the lean and chiseled body image stereotypes of Hollywood and Madison Ave; where women and girls strive to achieve thinness, men and boys look for well-developed muscles, sleek abs, sculptured pectorals. Since the 1970's, three times as many men have become dissatisfied with their overall appearance. One study shows that close to half of men between the ages of 50 and 59 were dissatisfied with their overall appearance, as compared with 41 and 48 percent for younger age groups. Related body image conditions include:

* BDD, body dysmorphic disorder (a severe preoccupation with an imagined or slight defect in appearance that can impair daily function and cause severe depression,)
* Steroid use
* And muscle dysmorphia in which men and boys believe their muscles aren't large enough; these individuals spend inordinate amounts of time in the weight room.

The onset of disease in males is typically triggered by a concern with bodybuilding and sport training, an indicator that schools and coaches can have a great deal of influence in determining how a child thinks about himself, his body and his priorities. They also play a significant role in prevention. In fact, one of the chief differences between male and female eating disorders is that disordered men are more likely than women to be involved in sports like biking, wrestling, of diving that require weight control. Other differences include that facts that the average age of onset for men (15-16) is slightly later than that for women. (14-15) In addition, men may purge through self-induced vomiting and exercise more readily than do women because dieting, as a device to manage weight, is not as socially acceptable for men.
from here

I took a closer look at

Muscle dysmorphia can cause people to:

* Constantly examine themselves in a mirror
* Frequently compare themselves with others
* Hate their reflections
* Become distressed if they miss a workout session or one of their many meals a day
* Become distressed if they do not receive enough protein per day in their diet
* Take potentially dangerous anabolic steroids
* Neglect jobs, relationships, or family because of excessive exercising
* Have delusions of being underweight or below average in musculature.
* In extreme cases, inject appendages with fluid (e.g. synthol) - from here

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Muscle dysmorphic disorder, unofficially known as "bigorexia," is a disorder that normally affects men rather than women. It is recognized as a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which involves preoccupation with the appearance of body parts. Common among bodybuilders, muscle dysmorphic disorder (MDD) is marked by a never-ending drive to get bigger.

Muscle dysmorphic disorder is perhaps easiest to describe in terms of its similarity to anorexia nervosa. Thought patterns, risk-taking behaviors, and avoidance of treatment are areas that look the same to friends and family for both disorders.
Thought Patterns in Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder

In anorexia: "No matter how much I restrict food, exercise, or purge, I can't get thin enough."

In muscle dysmorphic disorder: "No matter how much I work out, how many supplements, steroids, or human growth hormone I take, I can't build enough muscle mass."

To the observer, of course, someone with muscle dysmorphic disorder usually seems to be quite large enough. But that won't stop the workouts; in fact, this person will avoid other enjoyable activities if they would make him miss opportunities to work out.
Risk-Taking in Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder

The person with anorexia will often be aware of many of the risks it creates--osteoporosis, muscle loss, injury (from compulsive exercise), heart arrhythmias, and fatigue, among others, possibly leading to death. Getting thinner and/or staying thin is more important.

Similarly, the individual with muscle dysmorphic disorder may continue to work toward greater muscle mass despite being injured. He will generally not concern himself with the risks of steroid or human growth hormone use.
Avoidance of Treatment in Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder

While those with bulimia receive treatment less often, those with anorexia are perhaps more likely to believe that they do not need treatment. Most live under the illusion that their chosen way of life is the best way out there. They believe that others say it's dangerous because they are envious. The material on this web site might be dismissed by someone with anorexia for this reason.

Muscle dysmorphic disorder produces the same effect. The overriding belief is that even if there are problems with working endlessly to develop muscle, those problems are not as bad as the problems that would come if the person gave it up.
Severity and Risks
A study on the relationship between muscle dysmorphic disorder and other forms of body dysmorphic disorder suggests that among those with BDD symptoms, persons with MDD had poorer quality of life and a higher rate of substance abuse. They were also more likely to attempt suicide.
Getting Help

Muscle dysmorphic disorder's similarity with anorexia nervosa would seem to make it a prime candidate for similar treatment. Given that muscle dysmorphic disorder is more likely to affect men, however, raises an issue: Currently, here are few facilities that specialize in treatment of males. This may make men less likely to receive the treatment they need.- from here

 This article takes a closer look at the media

I ran across a fascinating statistic in an article about male body image. If the original G.I. Joe were made life-size, his biceps would have been 12.2 inches in circumference. But 30 years later, Joe has been transformed: His biceps would now measure 26.8 inches in circumference. To put that in perspective, no bodybuilder has ever achieved biceps of that size. Not one.

But why the shift? Why does G.I. Joe's body need to change to be interesting to young boys? It seems that our criteria for appreciating the male body have moved from function to form.
Changes in Male Body Image

It's common for boys (and men, certainly) to compete with each other physically to see who can do more -- jump higher, run faster, lift more, throw farther and more accurately. You'll even see it on work crews where men are doing physically taxing work. There's a tendency for many men to prove that they can outwork or outlast others.

But this appears to be changing. As men's health and fitness magazines focus on how the body looks, rather than what it does, readers change their priorities as well. The questions men now ask are, "What supplement can I take to help me increase my muscularity?" or "How should I work out to make my biceps bigger?"

Effects of Advertisements on Male Body Image

A study examined advertisements depicting male bodies in a major sports magazine over the course of 30 years, beginning in the mid-1970s. The goal was to examine whether models have increasingly been shown in ways that emphasize the body's appearance over its ability.

While some measures the researchers used showed no clear trends, other variables were more telling. For example, models in today's advertisements are less likely to be shown using the advertised product. Also, body parts that can be considered sexualized (e.g., biceps, chest, back, and the abdominal and pelvic regions) are much more likely to be exposed in the 2000s than they were in the 1970s. Plus, it has generally become harder to determine where a model is looking in advertisements (the researchers hold that models whose eyes are hidden are easier to be seen as objects). These criteria would suggest decreasing focus on the body's ability and greater focus on appearance.
How Male Body Image Issues Can Get Out of Control

This focus on appearance is what makes men's pursuit of greater muscularity similar to the pursuit of thinness in women (anorexia nervosa). Both are pursuing visual ideals that are sometimes impossible to achieve. In some cases, the obsession with gaining muscle mass interferes with life away from the gym. This phenomenon, called muscle dysmorphic disorder (and commonly known as "bigorexia"), can lead men to risk their health by using potentially dangerous substances such as anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH).

Even though visual ideals are generally unattainable, they represent concrete goals. This can be a relief to some men who aren't sure how to embrace their masculinity in other ways, or who believe they aren't successful enough in other areas. In short, adding muscle -- changing appearance, rather than improving ability -- literally helps some feel more "like a man." Unfortunately, many find that no amount of muscle is enough.- from here

 And now let us end this wall of text, with another wall of text.

Although many women have body image issues and participate in weight-control behaviors, only a small percentage meet the full criteria for an eating disorder (Tylka, 2004). Likewise, many men who do not meet all of the diagnostic criteria for muscle dysmorphia may still engage in behaviors that are unhealthy and may be associated with significant distresses and impairments (Chung, 2001). Subclinical behaviors that can be associated with muscle dysmorphia can still lead to "strained relationships, impaired social activities, and occupational dysfunction" (Harvey & Robinson, 2003, p. 297) and can be problematic to manage in a college population. For example, a male student may experience strained social relationships because of his feelings of low self-esteem or inadequacies as a man, avoid social functions that interfere with a strict workout schedule or because his self-esteem and body image are so poor, or be distracted from academic work because of the time devoted to exercising or worrying about his appearance.

Even though the behaviors associated with muscle dysmorphia have been identified, research about the possible causes of the disorder is still lacking. In a study of college men in Canada, T. G. Morrison, Morrison, and Hopkins (2003) found that male students attributed the desire for muscularity to social benefits, health benefits, sociocultural pressures, and masculinity. However, this study only examined the desire to be muscular, not the unhealthy drive for muscularity found in muscle dysmorphia. Olivardia, Pope, and Hudson (2000) stated that, "like eating disorders, muscle dysmorphia may be stimulated by sociocultural influences" (p. 1295).

It is possible that this emergence of muscle dysmorphia among college men is due, in part, to changing cultural trends. Specifically, the new ideal male physique is a muscular mesomorphic build, which is characterized by significant muscular definition in the upper body and a slim waist and lower body (T. G. Morrison et al., 2003). Furthermore, researchers are now suggesting that the ideal body portrayed by the mass media influences men's perceptions of what is attractive and lead them to view their bodies as objects or a constellation of different muscular parts (T. G. Morrison et al., 2003).

It is widely believed that the increase in eating disorders among women may have been linked to the images of women in the popular media. Several recent studies have examined how images of men in the media have changed. Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, and Borowiecki (1999) examined the waist, chest, and biceps of male action figures over the past 30 years and found that they have become more muscular and currently exceed the proportions of even the largest bodybuilders. Leit, Pope, and Gray (2001) examined Playgirl centerfolds from 1973 to 1997 and, based on perceived body mass index and fat free mass index, found that the models have become increasingly lean and muscular throughout the past decade and suggested that some men may see themselves as inadequate in comparison with these male models. A related study found that the number of advertisements appearing in women's magazines containing men who are undressed or advertising something unrelated to their bodies have increased dramatically over the past 40 years (Pope, Olivardia, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001), whereas Leit, Gray, and Pope (2002) found that college men were more dissatisfied with their own bodies after viewing advertisements that highlight muscular men as compared with a control group who viewed neutral advertisements. Also, Botta (2003) found that men who read sports magazines showed few signs of body dissatisfaction because they were typically reading for the sports information; however, men who read health magazines reported more body dissatisfaction because they were more likely to compare themselves with the men pictured in these magazines.

There is evidence that college men are at a developmental stage that could put them at risk for having an unhealthy obsession with body image issues. Spitzer, Henderson, and Zivian (1999) reported that an inclination toward a lean and muscular body begins at 6 or 7 years of age, continues throughout adolescence, and reaches a pinnacle in the emerging adulthood time period. Furthermore, Olivardia et al. (2000) found that the average age for the onset of muscle dysmorphia was 19.4 years.

Because the identification of muscle dysmorphia is relatively new, few studies about this disorder have been published. Some of the first studies involved male weight lifters because they seemed the most at-risk group for the disorder. Olivardia et al. (2000) conducted a case-control study of weight lifters and then conducted a comparison study of college students. The two populations were found to have similar incidences of body dissatisfaction, eating disorder behaviors, and drive to become more muscular. A study by Pope, Gruber, et al. (2000) compared the perceptions college men in Austria, France, and the United States have about their own body, the ideal male body image, and the male body that they believed women prefer. The men from all three countries similarly perceived their bodies as less than ideal and misidentified what women prefer by grossly overestimating the kilograms of muscle women desire in an ideal male body. Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, and Cohane (2004) replicated this study with college students in the United States and arrived at the same conclusion with regard to how college men perceive their own bodies and the body shape that women are believed to desire.

Several efforts have been made to develop instruments to measure muscle dysmorphia. Some studies have used the Somatomorphic Matrix to have men view computerized male body images and add or subtract muscle and fat in order to identify their current images, the ideal image, and the image that women want (Olivardia ct al., 2000; Olivardia et al., 2004; Pope, Gruber, et al., 2000). These studies and others have validated the Somatomorphic Matrix as an effective tool to measure muscle dysmorphia. Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, and Drab (2002) created the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale as a self-report measure for the cognitive, affective, and behavior dimensions of muscle dysmorphia. This instrument was found to be a valid measure of muscle dysmorphia in men but not women. McCreary, Sasse, Saucier, and Dorsch (2004) determined that the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000) creates a valid overall score for both men and women; however, the DMS Attitude and Behavior subscales are valid only for men. Cafri and Thompson (2004) reviewed the available assessment instruments and concluded that the DMS, the Somatomorphic Matrix, and a modified version of the Somatomorphic Matrix were the most effective methods for measuring the psychological and behavioral factors of muscle dysmorphia.

Creatine Use: An Added Complication for College Men

In the case of eating disorders among college women, a defining feature is the drive to be thinner. Correspondingly, women with these concerns engage in problematic compensatory and weight management behavior, such as inappropriate purging through vomiting and laxative use. Likewise, a defining feature of the muscle dysmorphia syndrome is the drive for increased muscle mass. Correspondingly, men may engage in problematic behaviors that involve the use of muscle-enhancing substances, such as creatine. Ricciardelli and McCabe (2004) reported that extreme methods to build muscle mass include the use of anabolic steroids and that less extreme methods include the use of food supplements, protein powders, and particular forms of exercise. Although the risks of using anabolic steroids are well known, the use of the legal substance creatine is a new concern because it may lead to steroid use if the desired results are not achieved (Kanayama, Gruber, Pope, Borowiecki, & Hudson, 2001; Metzl, Small, Levine, & Gershel, 2001). Morgan (2002) reported that "a subculture of drug abuse and risky self-medication" (p. A53) is growing on college campuses because drugs like ephedrine and creatine are readily available. Given this environment, college counselors should become informed about the potential dangers of such a subculture and the possibility that it will lead students to the use of illegal substances.

Creatine is a substance found in food that has been shown to increase weight without increasing fat, but no studies on its long-term effects have been reported (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000). L. J. Morrison, Gizis, and Shorter (2004) found that 41% of the 113 participants in their study, ages 18 to 30 years and attending a commercial gym, had taken creatine. Furthermore, creatine is currently the most popular supplement used by male high school and college athletes (McGuine, Sullivan, & Bernhardt, 2001). Of further concern is the fact that creatine is not a regulated substance, and persons of any age can purchase it (Congeni & Miller, 2002). - from here

Still 59 unpublished blogposts to...erm....post....sigh

Unobtainable beauty standards

A nice article. I'll start with the usual double standard.

While female models are criticised for fuelling the rise in eating disorders by looking underweight, their male counterparts have largely escaped such adverse scrutiny. By and large, we have collectively assumed that those rippling abs represent the result of the kind of gym-dedication and healthy living that can only be admired. Behind the abs, though, is a far from wholesome reality.

The truth seems to differ a bit as a male model tells us what he has to do to look that way.

For days at a time he restricts fluid intake so severely that the resulting dehydration causes headaches, haziness and overwhelming fatigue. Having trained for weeks like an Olympian with high-intensity circuits, running and weightlifting, he then cuts out exercise for 48 hours and opens a bottle of red wine to drink alone. A six-day carbohydrate-depletion diet, in which he eats little more than chicken and broccoli, leaves his muscles weak and his brain so starved of glycogen, its source of fuel, that he feels dizzy and disorientated when he stands up. He can barely walk, let alone hit the gym. [...] Two days before a photoshoot, he says, he begins to dehydrate by restricting the intake of water and other fluids to a minimum. After almost a week of carbohydrate avoidance, he also begins to “carbo-load” by eating pasta and sweet potatoes for 48 hours. “That forces the muscles to fill up with glycogen so they look bigger,” he says. “Being dehydrated makes your skin shrink and become taut so that it sticks to the muscles and gives a dry, vascular appearance, making your veins stick out, which is what the magazines want.” Many male models drink alcohol — brandy and gin are favourites — to speed dehydration. “I open a bottle of red wine the night before, and on the morning of a photoshoot I have another glass of wine and some wine gums,” Martin says. “The sugar in the sweets and the alcohol draw more water from the skin, leaving you looking as lean as possible.” Among models and many others in the industry, Martin says, there is an unspoken acknowledgement that the pre-shoot regimen is standard. “There is definitely a sense that magazines expect you to turn up dehydrated and dizzy,” he says. “I’ve been on castings for fitness magazines where there are six or seven models who are so groggy and out of it that they need to grab a chair to sit down and literally can’t speak.”

What makes this thing ironic is that such a regiment is needed to get on the cover of Men's Health. Health, as in not dehydraded...my oh my.

Also funny

Fricker says that tricks are sometimes used to create an unrealistic illusion of abdominal perfection. Last year, one publication featured him in an article entitled “Scrawny to Brawny” in which it was insinuated that readers could transform their bodies into something resembling his rock-hard physique in eight weeks. “But the ‘before’ picture they showed of me was one from five years ago, not two months previously, so it was misleading,” he says. “Quite often, ‘before’ and ‘after’ pictures are taken on the same day. Models are asked to slump their shoulders and un-tense their abs in the ‘before’ shots, then art directors use lighting, better posture and Photoshop to get the ‘after’ effect they want.”

And finally

But the pursuit of that perfect six-pack shows no sign of slowing. Recent research by the Harley Medical Group, the largest cosmetic surgery chain in the UK, revealed that the number of men aged 35 and over choosing to have a tummy tuck has risen by 55 per cent so far this year, compared with 2009. And a University of Florida study suggested that changing perceptions of the ideal male physique have triggered a wave of body-image problems among men striving to achieve a muscular look. Professor Heather Hausenblas, the exercise psychologist who carried out the research, said: “If you look back at the ideal male body, 50 years ago it wasn’t this hyper-muscular physique that we see now,” she says.

“We have seen a significant rise in the number of men who are dissatisfied with the way the look and want to be more muscular.”
As long as we continue to buy into the dream that such bodies are attainable, cover models will flaunt their ripped midsections on magazines proffering the irresistible notion that chiselled abs are up for grabs. “But it’s impossible to look like that seven days a week, despite what the magazines try to tell you,” says Martin. “We can’t achieve that look. Nobody can.”

Misandry in the media

Good article....the highlights:

It has also been studied by academicians Dr. Katherine Young and Paul Nathanson in their book, Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture. Young and Nathanson argue that in addition to being portrayed as generally unintelligent, men are ridiculed, rejected, and physically abused in the media. Such behavior, they suggest, "would never be acceptable if directed at women." Evidence of this pattern is found in a 2001 survey of 1,000 adults conducted by the Advertising Standards Association in Great Britain, which found that 2/3 of respondents thought that women featured in advertisements were "intelligent, assertive, and caring," while the men were "pathetic and silly." The number of respondents who thought men were depicted as "intelligent" was a paltry 14%. (While these figures apply to the United Kingdom, comparable advertisements air in the U.S.) 

[...]

According to Gender Issues in Advertising Language, television portrayals that help create or reinforce negative stereotypes can lead to problems with self-image, self-concept, and personal aspirations. Young men learn that they are expected to screw up, that women will have the brains to their brawn, and that childcare is over their heads. And it isn't just men who suffer from this constant parade of dumb men on tv. Children Now reports a new study that found that 2/3 of children they surveyed describe men on tv as angry and only 1/3 report ever seeing a man on television performing domestic chores, such as cooking or cleaning. There are far too few positive role models for young boys on television.
Moreover, stereotypical male-bashing portrayals undermine the core belief of the feminist movement: equality. Just think. What if the butt of all the jokes took on another identity? Consider the following fictional exchanges:

"It is so hard to get decent employees."
"That's because you keep hiring blacks." "I just don't understand this project at all."
"Well, a woman explained it to you, so what did you expect?"
"I can't believe he is going out again tonight."
"Oh please, all Hispanics care about is sex."

All of these statements are offensive, and would rightfully be objected to by advocates of fair representation in the media. However, put the word "man" or "men" in place of "blacks," "woman," and "Hispanics" in the above sentences and they're deemed humorous. Are men who ask to be treated civilly overly sensitive or are we as justified in our objections as members of NOW, the NAACP, GLAAD, and other groups which protest demeaning television portrayals, whether those portrayals are on sitcoms, dramas, advertisements, or moronic tv like The Man Show.

The Media...

This is what the Shriver report had to say (to clarify, this was written by a feminist)

Women’s professional success and financial status are significantly overrepresented in the mainstream media, suggesting that women indeed “have it all.”

The critique of media out of a MRA view is quite different. To cite from Jim R. Macnamara 2006 study:
(EDIT: A linkt to it is here)

This extensive analysis of mass media news, current affairs, talk shows and lifestyle media found that these primary sources of what are claimed and widely seen as ‘fact’, ‘truth’ and ‘reality’ predominantly portray men as violent and aggressive thieves, murderers, wife and girlfriend bashers, sexual abusers, molesters, perverts, irresponsible deadbeat dads and philanderers, even though, in reality, only a small proportion of men act out these roles and behaviors. [...] almost 70% of all reporting and comment on men and male identity in the mass media genre studied was negative and more than 80% of portrayals of men and male identity were unfavourable. Violence and aggression are overwhelmingly the most frequent representations associated with men and boys [...] Men and boys are also widely represented as irresponsible, risk-taking, commitment phobic, insensitive, undomesticated, out of touch with their feelings and poor communicators.

With the exception of a small minority of positive media portrayals of male heroes such as war veterans, fire fighters and rescuers, and an equally small percentage of portrayals of men as good fathers, husbands and citizens, the only males presented positively are men and boys who have been ‘feminised’ such as ‘metrosexuals’ and males who exhibit “a feminine side”. In short, the only good in men, according to most discourse reflected and propagated in mass media, are traits alleged to be female. Maleness is widely represented as innately and culturally evil, and characteristics of masculinity are principally portrayed as undesirable and anachronistic – notably aggression, violence, sexual predaciousness and promiscuity, competitiveness and traditional body image.

[...]

Qualitative analysis also conducted as part of this study shows highly negative messages concerning men and male identity are communicated through  influential ‘quality’ media as well as ‘popular’ press (University of Queensland, 1992); are contributed by credible sources such as academics and best-selling authors (see Figure 23); and are couched in semiotically significant (ie. persuasive) language as shown in chapter five. In-depth text analysis techniques reveal that, tonally, mass media content frequently includes highly critical and even vitriolic attacks on men and male identity, and balance is not provided through oppositional (ie. male supportive) views in all but a few cases. Analysis confirms bias against men in key areas of discourse in both quantitative and qualitative terms.

It can be concluded from this study that men are widely demonised, marginalised, trivialised and objectified in mass media. These findings support and expand those of Nathanson and Young (2001) and others who have reported “misandry” and denigration of men in modern societies.

[...]

Generalisations [...] such as women are better communicators than men and claims that the world would be peaceful and a better place if women were in charge, are allowed to pass unchallenged in popular and in academic discourse reported in mass media. Statements of superiority in reverse (ie. suggestions that men are better than women) are defined as sexism and viewed as ‘politically incorrect’ and even illegal in some cases. This analysis shows that gender discrimination in language and discourse cited by Weatherall (2002) has reversed, or at least applies to both genders.

On Academia:

A significant number of mass media articles contributed by writers external to the media on subjects such as domestic violence and fatherhood indicate that  viewpoints propagated on these subjects are reflective of at least some elements of society. In particular, analysis of sources contributing the most negative discourse on men and male identity suggests that these views are reflective of intellectual and academic thinking. [...]  In this sense, mass media cannot be ‘blamed’ for the views expressed and one must consider the implications of these negative views of men being held in societies. That highly negative views of men are held within intellectual and academic fields is potentially of more concern than the potential for mass media communication of these views to influence society, as it indicates that these attitudes already exist and that they exist at an influential level. University lecturers, trainers, writers and senior political appointees frame education and social and political policy for future generations.

Similar findings:

Woods (1999) says that “the hegemonic discourse of the ‘flawed male’ can only lead to the experience of social exclusion for many young men, an experience that is known to lead to disastrous consequences for the well-being of individuals and communities”.

Macdonald et al. (2000) conclude from their studies: “We would suggest that there is a strong element of negativity in our culture about men which cannot contribute to positive mental health and we must actively pursue cultural  initiatives which promote in boys and men a positive sense of self”.

And feminism:

Given the celebratory tone of feminism towards being a woman and femininity, this suggests that being a woman is a laudable accomplishment, a source of  pride. But the widespread criticism and at times vitriolic attacks on men and masculinity suggest that being a man/male is a failing and a cause for shame.

Views such as that of Ferguson, and pro-feminist writers such as Webb (1998) who claims that traditional masculinity is redundant and needs to be “junked”, fall into the trap of generalising and are extreme in that they recognise no good in men or masculinity at all. This is a position also taken by pro-feminist academics such as Connell (1995a) and Edgar (1998) who urge men to discard traditional masculinity and evolve instead to feminist-dominated gender studies notions of what they should be – usually involving, as Edgar’s concluding chapter title says “Reshaping masculinity”.

Significantly, feminism has not denounced any of the wide range of femininities that exist and, instead, advocates that women can be whatever they want to be – wives, careerists, jet fighter pilots, astronauts, strippers, prostitutes, or ‘girlies’ wearing mini-skirts and boas. Third Wave feminism has celebrated traditional feminine values and traits as well as opened up new ‘narratives of the self’ for women. However, widely propagated discourse tells men that they need to totally discard traditional masculinities and be “reconstructed”.

Discourse suggests that women can be whatever they want to be; men have to be what feminist-dominated discourses dictate they should be, affording them limited possibilities and denying them self-determination and autonomy as individuals. This position is in conflict with the philosophy of choice widely advanced in feminist gender theory. If men are to be ‘liberated’ and afforded the same autonomy that women claim, they need to be allowed to be what they want to be. Imperfect that may be at times, but social equity suggests that men should be allowed to write themselves into existence and be given voice in the discourse that forms the scripts that other men use to write themselves into existence.

Interesting read, that is for sure.